Rhetological Fallacies – Information Is Beautiful

Rhetological Fallacies Errors and manipulation of rhetoric and logical thinking Appeal to the Mind Appeal to Emotions Appeal to Anonymous Authority Appeal to Consequences of a Belief Using evidence from an unnamed 'expert' or 'study' or generalized group (like 'scientists') to claim something is true. Arguing a belief is false because it implies something you'd rather not believe. "That can't be the Senator on that sextape. If it were, he'd be lying about not knowing her. And he's not the kind of man who would lie." "They say that it takes 7 years to digest chewing gum." Appeal to Authority Appeal to Fear Claiming something is true because an 'expert', whether qualified or not, says it is. An argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposing side. "Over 400 prominent scientists and engineers dispute global warming." "Before you know it there will be more mosques than churches." Appeal to Common Practice Appeal to Flattery Using an irrelevant compliment to slip in an unfounded claim which is accepted along with the compliment. Claiming something is true because it's commonly practiced. "This bank has some problems with corruption. Butthere's nothing going on here that doesn't go on in all the other banks." "Intelligent and sophisticated readers will of course recognise a fallacy like this when they read one." Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to Nature A claim is true simply because it has not been proven false (or false because it has not been proven true). Making your claim seem more true by drawing a comparison with the "good" natural world. "Of course homosexuality is unnatural. You don 't see same-sex animals copulating." "Nobody has proved to me there is a God. So there is no God." Appeal to Incredulity Appeal to Pity Because a claim sounds unbelievable, it must not be true. Attempt to induce pity to sway opponents. "The eye is an incredibly complex biomechanical machine with thousands of interlocking parts. How could that exist without an intelligent designer?" "The former dictator is an old, dying man. It's wrong to make him stand trial for these alleged offenses." Appeal to Money Appeal to Ridicule Supposing that, if someone is rich or something is expensive, then it affects the truth of the claim. Presenting the opponent's argument in a way that makes it appear absurd. "If it costs more, it must be better." "Faith in God is like believing in Santa Claus and the Tooth Fairy." Appeal to Novelty Appeal to Spite Dismissing a claim by appealing to personal bias against the claimant. Supposing something is better because it is new or newer. "Awesome! The latest version of this operating system is going to make my computer faster and better." "Don't you just hate how those rich Liberal Hollywood actors go on TV to promote their agen das?" Appeal to Popular Belief Appeal to Wishful Thinking tt Suggesting a claim is true or false just because you strongly hope it is. Claiming something is true because the majority of people believe it. "Milk is good for your bones." "The President wouldn't lie. He's our leader and a good American." Appeal to Probability Р (A or B) = P(AUB) =P (A) + P (B) Assuming because something could happen, it will inevitably happen. "There are billions of galaxies with billions of stars in the universe. So there must be another planet with intelligent life on it." Appeal to Tradition Claiming something is true because it's (apparently) always been that way. "Marriage is the union between man and women. Therefore gay marriage is wrong." Faulty Deduction Manipulating Content Anecdotal Evidence Ad Hoc Rescue Discounting evidence arrived at by systematic search or testing in favor of a few firsthand stories. Trying to save a cherished belief by repeatedly revising the argument to explain away problems. "I'm going to carry on smoking. My grandfather smoked 40 a day and he lived until he was 90!" "..But apart from better sanitation, medicine, education, irrigation, public health, roads, a freshwater system and public order... what have the Romans done for us?" Composition Biased Generalizing Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of some or all of a group applies to the entire group. Generalizing from an unrepresentative sample to increase the strength of your argument. "Recentterrorist attacks have been carried out by radical Islamic groups. Therefore all terrorists are muslims." "Our website poll found that 90% of internet users oppose online piracy laws." Division Confirmation Bias Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of a group automatically apply to any individual member. Cherry-picking evidence that supports your idea while ignoring contradicting evidence. "Many Conservatives wish to ban gay marriage, discredit climate change, and deny evolution. Therefore all conservatives are homophobic, anti-enviromental creationists." "It's obvious 9-11 was a American-government led conspiracy to justify war in Iraq and Afghanistan. No plane hit the Pentagon. The Twin Towers collapse was a controlled demolition... etc" False Dilemma Design Fallacy A Presenting two opposing options as the only two options while hiding alternatives. Assuming that because something is nicely designed or beautifully visualized it's more true. "We're going to have to cut the education budget or go deeper into debt. We can't afford to go deeper into debt. So we'll have to cut the education budget." "Er.." Gambler's Fallacy Lie Assuming the history of outcomes will affect future outcomes. An outright untruth repeated knowingly as a fact. "I've flipped this coin 10 times in a row, and it's been heads. Therefore the next coin flip is more likely to come up tails." "I did not have sexual relations with that woman." Misleading Vividness Hasty Generalization Describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is a rare occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem. @=(A) Drawing a general conclusion from a tiny sample. "After a court decision to legalise gay marriage, school libraries were required to stock same-sex literature; primary school children were given homosexual fairy stories and even manuals of explicit homosexual advocacy" "I just got cut off by the woman driver in front. Women can't drive." Red Herring Jumping to Conclusions Drawing a quick conclusion without fairly considering relevant (and easily available) evidence. Introducing irrelevant material to the argument too distract and lead towards a different conclusion. "The Senator needn't account for irregularities in his expenses. After all, there are other senators who have done far worse things." "She wants birth control in her medical coverage? What a slut!" Middle Ground Slippery Slope Assuming because two opposing arguments have merit, the answer must lie somewhere between them. Assuming a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related (negative) events. "I rear ended your car butI don't think I should pay for the damage. You think I should pay for all the damage. A fair compromise would be to split the bill in half." "If we legalize marijuana, more people will start using crack and heroin. Then we'd have to legalize those too." Perfectionist Fallacy Suppressed Evidence ***** Assuming that the only option on the table is perfect success, then rejecting anything that will not work perfectly. Intentionally failing to use significant and relevant information which counts against one's own conclusion. "What's the point of this anti-drunk driving campaign? People are still going to drink and drive no matter what." "The Iraqi regime possesses and produces chemical and biological weapon s. It is seeking nuclear weapons." Relativist Fallacy Unfalsifiability ®-O Rejecting a claim because of a belief that truth is relative to a Offering a claim that cannot be proven false, because there is no way to check if it is false or not. person or group. "That's perhaps true for you. But it's not true for me." "He lied because he's possessed by demons." Spotlight A Assuming an observation from a small sample size applies to an entire group. "This large shoe manufacturer employs children in sweatshops. Therefore all shoe companies are evil child-slave owners!" A' Sweeping Generalisation Applying a general rule too broadly. "Those young men rioted because they lacked morally responsible fathers." Undistributed Middle A (- B Assuming because two things share a property, that makes them the same thing. "A theory can mean an unproven idea. Scientists use the term evolutionary theory. Therefore evolution is an unproven idea." Garbled Cause & Effect On the Attoack Affirming the Consequent Ad Hominem Assuming there's only one explanation for the observation you're making. Bypassing the argument by launching an irrelevant attack on the person and not their claim. "Marriage often results in the birth of children. So that's the reason why it exists." "Anyone that says we should build the Ground Zero Mosque is an American-hating liberal." Circular Logic Burden of Proof A conclusion is derived from a premise based on the conclusion. I don't need to prove my claim - you must prove it is false. "Stripping privacy rights only matters to those with something to hide. You must have something to hide if you oppose privacy protection." "I maintain long-term solar cycles are the cause of global warming. Show me l'm wron g." Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Circumstance Ad Hominem Claiming two events that occur together must have a cause-and-effect relationship. (Correlation = cause). Stating a claim isn't credible only because of the advocate's interests in their claim. "Teenagers in gangs listen to rap music with violent themes. Rap music inspires violence in teenagers." "A study into the health risks of mobile phone involved mobile phone companies. Therefore, the study cannot be trusted." Denying the Antecedent Genetic Fallacy There isn't only one explanation for an outcome. So it's false to assume the cause based on the effect. Attacking the cause or origin of a claim, rather than its substance. "Of course, mainstream liberal media aren't going to say Barack "If you get a degree, you'll get a good job. If you don't get a degree, you won't get a good job." Obama is a Muslim." Ignoring a Common Cause Guilt by Association Claiming one event must have caused the other when a third (unlooked for) event is probably the cause. Discrediting an idea or claim by associating it with an undesirable person or group. "We had the 60s sexual revolution, and now people are dying of AIDS." "Oh you want to relax the anti-terrorism laws just like the terrorists want us to do. Are you saying you support terrorism?" Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Straw Man Claiming that because one event followed another, it was also caused by it. Creating a distorted or simplified caricature of your opponent's argument, and then arguing against that. "Since the election of the President more people than ever are unemployed. Therefore the President has damaged the economy." "You say Israel should stop building settlements on the West Bank in violation of treaty. So you're saying Israel doesn't have the right to be a nation?" Two Wrongs Make a Right Assuming that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out. "Sure - the conditions in this prison are cruel and dehumanising. But these inmates are criminals!" InformationisBeautiful.net written & designed by David McCandless // version 2.00 // Nov 2012 additional design: Tatjana Dubovina, Piero Zagami research: Marley Whiteside, Kathryn Ariel Kay, Peter Ayres data & research: bit.ly/rhetological sources: Wikipedia, FallacyFiles.org, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Skeptic Dictionary, ChangingMinds.org, LogicallyFallacious.com, e-ducation.net, EvolutionWiki.org Infidels.org, Philosophical Society, Sjsu.ed, TVTropes.org, Santarosa.edu, A Concise Introduction to Logic (Patrick J Hurley), Beginners Guide to the Scientific Method (Stephen S Carey) thanks to: Johnathan, Wes, Dontsave, Rummy. DVJ, Roberto Ruiz ミン 8) Rhetological Fallacies Errors and manipulation of rhetoric and logical thinking Appeal to the Mind Appeal to Emotions Appeal to Anonymous Authority Appeal to Consequences of a Belief Using evidence from an unnamed 'expert' or 'study' or generalized group (like 'scientists') to claim something is true. Arguing a belief is false because it implies something you'd rather not believe. "That can't be the Senator on that sextape. If it were, he'd be lying about not knowing her. And he's not the kind of man who would lie." "They say that it takes 7 years to digest chewing gum." Appeal to Authority Appeal to Fear Claiming something is true because an 'expert', whether qualified or not, says it is. An argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposing side. "Over 400 prominent scientists and engineers dispute global warming." "Before you know it there will be more mosques than churches." Appeal to Common Practice Appeal to Flattery Using an irrelevant compliment to slip in an unfounded claim which is accepted along with the compliment. Claiming something is true because it's commonly practiced. "This bank has some problems with corruption. Butthere's nothing going on here that doesn't go on in all the other banks." "Intelligent and sophisticated readers will of course recognise a fallacy like this when they read one." Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to Nature A claim is true simply because it has not been proven false (or false because it has not been proven true). Making your claim seem more true by drawing a comparison with the "good" natural world. "Of course homosexuality is unnatural. You don 't see same-sex animals copulating." "Nobody has proved to me there is a God. So there is no God." Appeal to Incredulity Appeal to Pity Because a claim sounds unbelievable, it must not be true. Attempt to induce pity to sway opponents. "The eye is an incredibly complex biomechanical machine with thousands of interlocking parts. How could that exist without an intelligent designer?" "The former dictator is an old, dying man. It's wrong to make him stand trial for these alleged offenses." Appeal to Money Appeal to Ridicule Supposing that, if someone is rich or something is expensive, then it affects the truth of the claim. Presenting the opponent's argument in a way that makes it appear absurd. "If it costs more, it must be better." "Faith in God is like believing in Santa Claus and the Tooth Fairy." Appeal to Novelty Appeal to Spite Dismissing a claim by appealing to personal bias against the claimant. Supposing something is better because it is new or newer. "Awesome! The latest version of this operating system is going to make my computer faster and better." "Don't you just hate how those rich Liberal Hollywood actors go on TV to promote their agen das?" Appeal to Popular Belief Appeal to Wishful Thinking tt Suggesting a claim is true or false just because you strongly hope it is. Claiming something is true because the majority of people believe it. "Milk is good for your bones." "The President wouldn't lie. He's our leader and a good American." Appeal to Probability Р (A or B) = P(AUB) =P (A) + P (B) Assuming because something could happen, it will inevitably happen. "There are billions of galaxies with billions of stars in the universe. So there must be another planet with intelligent life on it." Appeal to Tradition Claiming something is true because it's (apparently) always been that way. "Marriage is the union between man and women. Therefore gay marriage is wrong." Faulty Deduction Manipulating Content Anecdotal Evidence Ad Hoc Rescue Discounting evidence arrived at by systematic search or testing in favor of a few firsthand stories. Trying to save a cherished belief by repeatedly revising the argument to explain away problems. "I'm going to carry on smoking. My grandfather smoked 40 a day and he lived until he was 90!" "..But apart from better sanitation, medicine, education, irrigation, public health, roads, a freshwater system and public order... what have the Romans done for us?" Composition Biased Generalizing Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of some or all of a group applies to the entire group. Generalizing from an unrepresentative sample to increase the strength of your argument. "Recentterrorist attacks have been carried out by radical Islamic groups. Therefore all terrorists are muslims." "Our website poll found that 90% of internet users oppose online piracy laws." Division Confirmation Bias Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of a group automatically apply to any individual member. Cherry-picking evidence that supports your idea while ignoring contradicting evidence. "Many Conservatives wish to ban gay marriage, discredit climate change, and deny evolution. Therefore all conservatives are homophobic, anti-enviromental creationists." "It's obvious 9-11 was a American-government led conspiracy to justify war in Iraq and Afghanistan. No plane hit the Pentagon. The Twin Towers collapse was a controlled demolition... etc" False Dilemma Design Fallacy A Presenting two opposing options as the only two options while hiding alternatives. Assuming that because something is nicely designed or beautifully visualized it's more true. "We're going to have to cut the education budget or go deeper into debt. We can't afford to go deeper into debt. So we'll have to cut the education budget." "Er.." Gambler's Fallacy Lie Assuming the history of outcomes will affect future outcomes. An outright untruth repeated knowingly as a fact. "I've flipped this coin 10 times in a row, and it's been heads. Therefore the next coin flip is more likely to come up tails." "I did not have sexual relations with that woman." Misleading Vividness Hasty Generalization Describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is a rare occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem. @=(A) Drawing a general conclusion from a tiny sample. "After a court decision to legalise gay marriage, school libraries were required to stock same-sex literature; primary school children were given homosexual fairy stories and even manuals of explicit homosexual advocacy" "I just got cut off by the woman driver in front. Women can't drive." Red Herring Jumping to Conclusions Drawing a quick conclusion without fairly considering relevant (and easily available) evidence. Introducing irrelevant material to the argument too distract and lead towards a different conclusion. "The Senator needn't account for irregularities in his expenses. After all, there are other senators who have done far worse things." "She wants birth control in her medical coverage? What a slut!" Middle Ground Slippery Slope Assuming because two opposing arguments have merit, the answer must lie somewhere between them. Assuming a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related (negative) events. "I rear ended your car butI don't think I should pay for the damage. You think I should pay for all the damage. A fair compromise would be to split the bill in half." "If we legalize marijuana, more people will start using crack and heroin. Then we'd have to legalize those too." Perfectionist Fallacy Suppressed Evidence ***** Assuming that the only option on the table is perfect success, then rejecting anything that will not work perfectly. Intentionally failing to use significant and relevant information which counts against one's own conclusion. "What's the point of this anti-drunk driving campaign? People are still going to drink and drive no matter what." "The Iraqi regime possesses and produces chemical and biological weapon s. It is seeking nuclear weapons." Relativist Fallacy Unfalsifiability ®-O Rejecting a claim because of a belief that truth is relative to a Offering a claim that cannot be proven false, because there is no way to check if it is false or not. person or group. "That's perhaps true for you. But it's not true for me." "He lied because he's possessed by demons." Spotlight A Assuming an observation from a small sample size applies to an entire group. "This large shoe manufacturer employs children in sweatshops. Therefore all shoe companies are evil child-slave owners!" A' Sweeping Generalisation Applying a general rule too broadly. "Those young men rioted because they lacked morally responsible fathers." Undistributed Middle A (- B Assuming because two things share a property, that makes them the same thing. "A theory can mean an unproven idea. Scientists use the term evolutionary theory. Therefore evolution is an unproven idea." Garbled Cause & Effect On the Attoack Affirming the Consequent Ad Hominem Assuming there's only one explanation for the observation you're making. Bypassing the argument by launching an irrelevant attack on the person and not their claim. "Marriage often results in the birth of children. So that's the reason why it exists." "Anyone that says we should build the Ground Zero Mosque is an American-hating liberal." Circular Logic Burden of Proof A conclusion is derived from a premise based on the conclusion. I don't need to prove my claim - you must prove it is false. "Stripping privacy rights only matters to those with something to hide. You must have something to hide if you oppose privacy protection." "I maintain long-term solar cycles are the cause of global warming. Show me l'm wron g." Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Circumstance Ad Hominem Claiming two events that occur together must have a cause-and-effect relationship. (Correlation = cause). Stating a claim isn't credible only because of the advocate's interests in their claim. "Teenagers in gangs listen to rap music with violent themes. Rap music inspires violence in teenagers." "A study into the health risks of mobile phone involved mobile phone companies. Therefore, the study cannot be trusted." Denying the Antecedent Genetic Fallacy There isn't only one explanation for an outcome. So it's false to assume the cause based on the effect. Attacking the cause or origin of a claim, rather than its substance. "Of course, mainstream liberal media aren't going to say Barack "If you get a degree, you'll get a good job. If you don't get a degree, you won't get a good job." Obama is a Muslim." Ignoring a Common Cause Guilt by Association Claiming one event must have caused the other when a third (unlooked for) event is probably the cause. Discrediting an idea or claim by associating it with an undesirable person or group. "We had the 60s sexual revolution, and now people are dying of AIDS." "Oh you want to relax the anti-terrorism laws just like the terrorists want us to do. Are you saying you support terrorism?" Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Straw Man Claiming that because one event followed another, it was also caused by it. Creating a distorted or simplified caricature of your opponent's argument, and then arguing against that. "Since the election of the President more people than ever are unemployed. Therefore the President has damaged the economy." "You say Israel should stop building settlements on the West Bank in violation of treaty. So you're saying Israel doesn't have the right to be a nation?" Two Wrongs Make a Right Assuming that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out. "Sure - the conditions in this prison are cruel and dehumanising. But these inmates are criminals!" InformationisBeautiful.net written & designed by David McCandless // version 2.00 // Nov 2012 additional design: Tatjana Dubovina, Piero Zagami research: Marley Whiteside, Kathryn Ariel Kay, Peter Ayres data & research: bit.ly/rhetological sources: Wikipedia, FallacyFiles.org, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Skeptic Dictionary, ChangingMinds.org, LogicallyFallacious.com, e-ducation.net, EvolutionWiki.org Infidels.org, Philosophical Society, Sjsu.ed, TVTropes.org, Santarosa.edu, A Concise Introduction to Logic (Patrick J Hurley), Beginners Guide to the Scientific Method (Stephen S Carey) thanks to: Johnathan, Wes, Dontsave, Rummy. DVJ, Roberto Ruiz ミン 8) Rhetological Fallacies Errors and manipulation of rhetoric and logical thinking Appeal to the Mind Appeal to Emotions Appeal to Anonymous Authority Appeal to Consequences of a Belief Using evidence from an unnamed 'expert' or 'study' or generalized group (like 'scientists') to claim something is true. Arguing a belief is false because it implies something you'd rather not believe. "That can't be the Senator on that sextape. If it were, he'd be lying about not knowing her. And he's not the kind of man who would lie." "They say that it takes 7 years to digest chewing gum." Appeal to Authority Appeal to Fear Claiming something is true because an 'expert', whether qualified or not, says it is. An argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposing side. "Over 400 prominent scientists and engineers dispute global warming." "Before you know it there will be more mosques than churches." Appeal to Common Practice Appeal to Flattery Using an irrelevant compliment to slip in an unfounded claim which is accepted along with the compliment. Claiming something is true because it's commonly practiced. "This bank has some problems with corruption. Butthere's nothing going on here that doesn't go on in all the other banks." "Intelligent and sophisticated readers will of course recognise a fallacy like this when they read one." Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to Nature A claim is true simply because it has not been proven false (or false because it has not been proven true). Making your claim seem more true by drawing a comparison with the "good" natural world. "Of course homosexuality is unnatural. You don 't see same-sex animals copulating." "Nobody has proved to me there is a God. So there is no God." Appeal to Incredulity Appeal to Pity Because a claim sounds unbelievable, it must not be true. Attempt to induce pity to sway opponents. "The eye is an incredibly complex biomechanical machine with thousands of interlocking parts. How could that exist without an intelligent designer?" "The former dictator is an old, dying man. It's wrong to make him stand trial for these alleged offenses." Appeal to Money Appeal to Ridicule Supposing that, if someone is rich or something is expensive, then it affects the truth of the claim. Presenting the opponent's argument in a way that makes it appear absurd. "If it costs more, it must be better." "Faith in God is like believing in Santa Claus and the Tooth Fairy." Appeal to Novelty Appeal to Spite Dismissing a claim by appealing to personal bias against the claimant. Supposing something is better because it is new or newer. "Awesome! The latest version of this operating system is going to make my computer faster and better." "Don't you just hate how those rich Liberal Hollywood actors go on TV to promote their agen das?" Appeal to Popular Belief Appeal to Wishful Thinking tt Suggesting a claim is true or false just because you strongly hope it is. Claiming something is true because the majority of people believe it. "Milk is good for your bones." "The President wouldn't lie. He's our leader and a good American." Appeal to Probability Р (A or B) = P(AUB) =P (A) + P (B) Assuming because something could happen, it will inevitably happen. "There are billions of galaxies with billions of stars in the universe. So there must be another planet with intelligent life on it." Appeal to Tradition Claiming something is true because it's (apparently) always been that way. "Marriage is the union between man and women. Therefore gay marriage is wrong." Faulty Deduction Manipulating Content Anecdotal Evidence Ad Hoc Rescue Discounting evidence arrived at by systematic search or testing in favor of a few firsthand stories. Trying to save a cherished belief by repeatedly revising the argument to explain away problems. "I'm going to carry on smoking. My grandfather smoked 40 a day and he lived until he was 90!" "..But apart from better sanitation, medicine, education, irrigation, public health, roads, a freshwater system and public order... what have the Romans done for us?" Composition Biased Generalizing Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of some or all of a group applies to the entire group. Generalizing from an unrepresentative sample to increase the strength of your argument. "Recentterrorist attacks have been carried out by radical Islamic groups. Therefore all terrorists are muslims." "Our website poll found that 90% of internet users oppose online piracy laws." Division Confirmation Bias Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of a group automatically apply to any individual member. Cherry-picking evidence that supports your idea while ignoring contradicting evidence. "Many Conservatives wish to ban gay marriage, discredit climate change, and deny evolution. Therefore all conservatives are homophobic, anti-enviromental creationists." "It's obvious 9-11 was a American-government led conspiracy to justify war in Iraq and Afghanistan. No plane hit the Pentagon. The Twin Towers collapse was a controlled demolition... etc" False Dilemma Design Fallacy A Presenting two opposing options as the only two options while hiding alternatives. Assuming that because something is nicely designed or beautifully visualized it's more true. "We're going to have to cut the education budget or go deeper into debt. We can't afford to go deeper into debt. So we'll have to cut the education budget." "Er.." Gambler's Fallacy Lie Assuming the history of outcomes will affect future outcomes. An outright untruth repeated knowingly as a fact. "I've flipped this coin 10 times in a row, and it's been heads. Therefore the next coin flip is more likely to come up tails." "I did not have sexual relations with that woman." Misleading Vividness Hasty Generalization Describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is a rare occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem. @=(A) Drawing a general conclusion from a tiny sample. "After a court decision to legalise gay marriage, school libraries were required to stock same-sex literature; primary school children were given homosexual fairy stories and even manuals of explicit homosexual advocacy" "I just got cut off by the woman driver in front. Women can't drive." Red Herring Jumping to Conclusions Drawing a quick conclusion without fairly considering relevant (and easily available) evidence. Introducing irrelevant material to the argument too distract and lead towards a different conclusion. "The Senator needn't account for irregularities in his expenses. After all, there are other senators who have done far worse things." "She wants birth control in her medical coverage? What a slut!" Middle Ground Slippery Slope Assuming because two opposing arguments have merit, the answer must lie somewhere between them. Assuming a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related (negative) events. "I rear ended your car butI don't think I should pay for the damage. You think I should pay for all the damage. A fair compromise would be to split the bill in half." "If we legalize marijuana, more people will start using crack and heroin. Then we'd have to legalize those too." Perfectionist Fallacy Suppressed Evidence ***** Assuming that the only option on the table is perfect success, then rejecting anything that will not work perfectly. Intentionally failing to use significant and relevant information which counts against one's own conclusion. "What's the point of this anti-drunk driving campaign? People are still going to drink and drive no matter what." "The Iraqi regime possesses and produces chemical and biological weapon s. It is seeking nuclear weapons." Relativist Fallacy Unfalsifiability ®-O Rejecting a claim because of a belief that truth is relative to a Offering a claim that cannot be proven false, because there is no way to check if it is false or not. person or group. "That's perhaps true for you. But it's not true for me." "He lied because he's possessed by demons." Spotlight A Assuming an observation from a small sample size applies to an entire group. "This large shoe manufacturer employs children in sweatshops. Therefore all shoe companies are evil child-slave owners!" A' Sweeping Generalisation Applying a general rule too broadly. "Those young men rioted because they lacked morally responsible fathers." Undistributed Middle A (- B Assuming because two things share a property, that makes them the same thing. "A theory can mean an unproven idea. Scientists use the term evolutionary theory. Therefore evolution is an unproven idea." Garbled Cause & Effect On the Attoack Affirming the Consequent Ad Hominem Assuming there's only one explanation for the observation you're making. Bypassing the argument by launching an irrelevant attack on the person and not their claim. "Marriage often results in the birth of children. So that's the reason why it exists." "Anyone that says we should build the Ground Zero Mosque is an American-hating liberal." Circular Logic Burden of Proof A conclusion is derived from a premise based on the conclusion. I don't need to prove my claim - you must prove it is false. "Stripping privacy rights only matters to those with something to hide. You must have something to hide if you oppose privacy protection." "I maintain long-term solar cycles are the cause of global warming. Show me l'm wron g." Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Circumstance Ad Hominem Claiming two events that occur together must have a cause-and-effect relationship. (Correlation = cause). Stating a claim isn't credible only because of the advocate's interests in their claim. "Teenagers in gangs listen to rap music with violent themes. Rap music inspires violence in teenagers." "A study into the health risks of mobile phone involved mobile phone companies. Therefore, the study cannot be trusted." Denying the Antecedent Genetic Fallacy There isn't only one explanation for an outcome. So it's false to assume the cause based on the effect. Attacking the cause or origin of a claim, rather than its substance. "Of course, mainstream liberal media aren't going to say Barack "If you get a degree, you'll get a good job. If you don't get a degree, you won't get a good job." Obama is a Muslim." Ignoring a Common Cause Guilt by Association Claiming one event must have caused the other when a third (unlooked for) event is probably the cause. Discrediting an idea or claim by associating it with an undesirable person or group. "We had the 60s sexual revolution, and now people are dying of AIDS." "Oh you want to relax the anti-terrorism laws just like the terrorists want us to do. Are you saying you support terrorism?" Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Straw Man Claiming that because one event followed another, it was also caused by it. Creating a distorted or simplified caricature of your opponent's argument, and then arguing against that. "Since the election of the President more people than ever are unemployed. Therefore the President has damaged the economy." "You say Israel should stop building settlements on the West Bank in violation of treaty. So you're saying Israel doesn't have the right to be a nation?" Two Wrongs Make a Right Assuming that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out. "Sure - the conditions in this prison are cruel and dehumanising. But these inmates are criminals!" InformationisBeautiful.net written & designed by David McCandless // version 2.00 // Nov 2012 additional design: Tatjana Dubovina, Piero Zagami research: Marley Whiteside, Kathryn Ariel Kay, Peter Ayres data & research: bit.ly/rhetological sources: Wikipedia, FallacyFiles.org, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Skeptic Dictionary, ChangingMinds.org, LogicallyFallacious.com, e-ducation.net, EvolutionWiki.org Infidels.org, Philosophical Society, Sjsu.ed, TVTropes.org, Santarosa.edu, A Concise Introduction to Logic (Patrick J Hurley), Beginners Guide to the Scientific Method (Stephen S Carey) thanks to: Johnathan, Wes, Dontsave, Rummy. DVJ, Roberto Ruiz ミン 8) Rhetological Fallacies Errors and manipulation of rhetoric and logical thinking Appeal to the Mind Appeal to Emotions Appeal to Anonymous Authority Appeal to Consequences of a Belief Using evidence from an unnamed 'expert' or 'study' or generalized group (like 'scientists') to claim something is true. Arguing a belief is false because it implies something you'd rather not believe. "That can't be the Senator on that sextape. If it were, he'd be lying about not knowing her. And he's not the kind of man who would lie." "They say that it takes 7 years to digest chewing gum." Appeal to Authority Appeal to Fear Claiming something is true because an 'expert', whether qualified or not, says it is. An argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposing side. "Over 400 prominent scientists and engineers dispute global warming." "Before you know it there will be more mosques than churches." Appeal to Common Practice Appeal to Flattery Using an irrelevant compliment to slip in an unfounded claim which is accepted along with the compliment. Claiming something is true because it's commonly practiced. "This bank has some problems with corruption. Butthere's nothing going on here that doesn't go on in all the other banks." "Intelligent and sophisticated readers will of course recognise a fallacy like this when they read one." Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to Nature A claim is true simply because it has not been proven false (or false because it has not been proven true). Making your claim seem more true by drawing a comparison with the "good" natural world. "Of course homosexuality is unnatural. You don 't see same-sex animals copulating." "Nobody has proved to me there is a God. So there is no God." Appeal to Incredulity Appeal to Pity Because a claim sounds unbelievable, it must not be true. Attempt to induce pity to sway opponents. "The eye is an incredibly complex biomechanical machine with thousands of interlocking parts. How could that exist without an intelligent designer?" "The former dictator is an old, dying man. It's wrong to make him stand trial for these alleged offenses." Appeal to Money Appeal to Ridicule Supposing that, if someone is rich or something is expensive, then it affects the truth of the claim. Presenting the opponent's argument in a way that makes it appear absurd. "If it costs more, it must be better." "Faith in God is like believing in Santa Claus and the Tooth Fairy." Appeal to Novelty Appeal to Spite Dismissing a claim by appealing to personal bias against the claimant. Supposing something is better because it is new or newer. "Awesome! The latest version of this operating system is going to make my computer faster and better." "Don't you just hate how those rich Liberal Hollywood actors go on TV to promote their agen das?" Appeal to Popular Belief Appeal to Wishful Thinking tt Suggesting a claim is true or false just because you strongly hope it is. Claiming something is true because the majority of people believe it. "Milk is good for your bones." "The President wouldn't lie. He's our leader and a good American." Appeal to Probability Р (A or B) = P(AUB) =P (A) + P (B) Assuming because something could happen, it will inevitably happen. "There are billions of galaxies with billions of stars in the universe. So there must be another planet with intelligent life on it." Appeal to Tradition Claiming something is true because it's (apparently) always been that way. "Marriage is the union between man and women. Therefore gay marriage is wrong." Faulty Deduction Manipulating Content Anecdotal Evidence Ad Hoc Rescue Discounting evidence arrived at by systematic search or testing in favor of a few firsthand stories. Trying to save a cherished belief by repeatedly revising the argument to explain away problems. "I'm going to carry on smoking. My grandfather smoked 40 a day and he lived until he was 90!" "..But apart from better sanitation, medicine, education, irrigation, public health, roads, a freshwater system and public order... what have the Romans done for us?" Composition Biased Generalizing Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of some or all of a group applies to the entire group. Generalizing from an unrepresentative sample to increase the strength of your argument. "Recentterrorist attacks have been carried out by radical Islamic groups. Therefore all terrorists are muslims." "Our website poll found that 90% of internet users oppose online piracy laws." Division Confirmation Bias Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of a group automatically apply to any individual member. Cherry-picking evidence that supports your idea while ignoring contradicting evidence. "Many Conservatives wish to ban gay marriage, discredit climate change, and deny evolution. Therefore all conservatives are homophobic, anti-enviromental creationists." "It's obvious 9-11 was a American-government led conspiracy to justify war in Iraq and Afghanistan. No plane hit the Pentagon. The Twin Towers collapse was a controlled demolition... etc" False Dilemma Design Fallacy A Presenting two opposing options as the only two options while hiding alternatives. Assuming that because something is nicely designed or beautifully visualized it's more true. "We're going to have to cut the education budget or go deeper into debt. We can't afford to go deeper into debt. So we'll have to cut the education budget." "Er.." Gambler's Fallacy Lie Assuming the history of outcomes will affect future outcomes. An outright untruth repeated knowingly as a fact. "I've flipped this coin 10 times in a row, and it's been heads. Therefore the next coin flip is more likely to come up tails." "I did not have sexual relations with that woman." Misleading Vividness Hasty Generalization Describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is a rare occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem. @=(A) Drawing a general conclusion from a tiny sample. "After a court decision to legalise gay marriage, school libraries were required to stock same-sex literature; primary school children were given homosexual fairy stories and even manuals of explicit homosexual advocacy" "I just got cut off by the woman driver in front. Women can't drive." Red Herring Jumping to Conclusions Drawing a quick conclusion without fairly considering relevant (and easily available) evidence. Introducing irrelevant material to the argument too distract and lead towards a different conclusion. "The Senator needn't account for irregularities in his expenses. After all, there are other senators who have done far worse things." "She wants birth control in her medical coverage? What a slut!" Middle Ground Slippery Slope Assuming because two opposing arguments have merit, the answer must lie somewhere between them. Assuming a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related (negative) events. "I rear ended your car butI don't think I should pay for the damage. You think I should pay for all the damage. A fair compromise would be to split the bill in half." "If we legalize marijuana, more people will start using crack and heroin. Then we'd have to legalize those too." Perfectionist Fallacy Suppressed Evidence ***** Assuming that the only option on the table is perfect success, then rejecting anything that will not work perfectly. Intentionally failing to use significant and relevant information which counts against one's own conclusion. "What's the point of this anti-drunk driving campaign? People are still going to drink and drive no matter what." "The Iraqi regime possesses and produces chemical and biological weapon s. It is seeking nuclear weapons." Relativist Fallacy Unfalsifiability ®-O Rejecting a claim because of a belief that truth is relative to a Offering a claim that cannot be proven false, because there is no way to check if it is false or not. person or group. "That's perhaps true for you. But it's not true for me." "He lied because he's possessed by demons." Spotlight A Assuming an observation from a small sample size applies to an entire group. "This large shoe manufacturer employs children in sweatshops. Therefore all shoe companies are evil child-slave owners!" A' Sweeping Generalisation Applying a general rule too broadly. "Those young men rioted because they lacked morally responsible fathers." Undistributed Middle A (- B Assuming because two things share a property, that makes them the same thing. "A theory can mean an unproven idea. Scientists use the term evolutionary theory. Therefore evolution is an unproven idea." Garbled Cause & Effect On the Attoack Affirming the Consequent Ad Hominem Assuming there's only one explanation for the observation you're making. Bypassing the argument by launching an irrelevant attack on the person and not their claim. "Marriage often results in the birth of children. So that's the reason why it exists." "Anyone that says we should build the Ground Zero Mosque is an American-hating liberal." Circular Logic Burden of Proof A conclusion is derived from a premise based on the conclusion. I don't need to prove my claim - you must prove it is false. "Stripping privacy rights only matters to those with something to hide. You must have something to hide if you oppose privacy protection." "I maintain long-term solar cycles are the cause of global warming. Show me l'm wron g." Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Circumstance Ad Hominem Claiming two events that occur together must have a cause-and-effect relationship. (Correlation = cause). Stating a claim isn't credible only because of the advocate's interests in their claim. "Teenagers in gangs listen to rap music with violent themes. Rap music inspires violence in teenagers." "A study into the health risks of mobile phone involved mobile phone companies. Therefore, the study cannot be trusted." Denying the Antecedent Genetic Fallacy There isn't only one explanation for an outcome. So it's false to assume the cause based on the effect. Attacking the cause or origin of a claim, rather than its substance. "Of course, mainstream liberal media aren't going to say Barack "If you get a degree, you'll get a good job. If you don't get a degree, you won't get a good job." Obama is a Muslim." Ignoring a Common Cause Guilt by Association Claiming one event must have caused the other when a third (unlooked for) event is probably the cause. Discrediting an idea or claim by associating it with an undesirable person or group. "We had the 60s sexual revolution, and now people are dying of AIDS." "Oh you want to relax the anti-terrorism laws just like the terrorists want us to do. Are you saying you support terrorism?" Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Straw Man Claiming that because one event followed another, it was also caused by it. Creating a distorted or simplified caricature of your opponent's argument, and then arguing against that. "Since the election of the President more people than ever are unemployed. Therefore the President has damaged the economy." "You say Israel should stop building settlements on the West Bank in violation of treaty. So you're saying Israel doesn't have the right to be a nation?" Two Wrongs Make a Right Assuming that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out. "Sure - the conditions in this prison are cruel and dehumanising. But these inmates are criminals!" InformationisBeautiful.net written & designed by David McCandless // version 2.00 // Nov 2012 additional design: Tatjana Dubovina, Piero Zagami research: Marley Whiteside, Kathryn Ariel Kay, Peter Ayres data & research: bit.ly/rhetological sources: Wikipedia, FallacyFiles.org, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Skeptic Dictionary, ChangingMinds.org, LogicallyFallacious.com, e-ducation.net, EvolutionWiki.org Infidels.org, Philosophical Society, Sjsu.ed, TVTropes.org, Santarosa.edu, A Concise Introduction to Logic (Patrick J Hurley), Beginners Guide to the Scientific Method (Stephen S Carey) thanks to: Johnathan, Wes, Dontsave, Rummy. DVJ, Roberto Ruiz ミン 8) Rhetological Fallacies Errors and manipulation of rhetoric and logical thinking Appeal to the Mind Appeal to Emotions Appeal to Anonymous Authority Appeal to Consequences of a Belief Using evidence from an unnamed 'expert' or 'study' or generalized group (like 'scientists') to claim something is true. Arguing a belief is false because it implies something you'd rather not believe. "That can't be the Senator on that sextape. If it were, he'd be lying about not knowing her. And he's not the kind of man who would lie." "They say that it takes 7 years to digest chewing gum." Appeal to Authority Appeal to Fear Claiming something is true because an 'expert', whether qualified or not, says it is. An argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposing side. "Over 400 prominent scientists and engineers dispute global warming." "Before you know it there will be more mosques than churches." Appeal to Common Practice Appeal to Flattery Using an irrelevant compliment to slip in an unfounded claim which is accepted along with the compliment. Claiming something is true because it's commonly practiced. "This bank has some problems with corruption. Butthere's nothing going on here that doesn't go on in all the other banks." "Intelligent and sophisticated readers will of course recognise a fallacy like this when they read one." Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to Nature A claim is true simply because it has not been proven false (or false because it has not been proven true). Making your claim seem more true by drawing a comparison with the "good" natural world. "Of course homosexuality is unnatural. You don 't see same-sex animals copulating." "Nobody has proved to me there is a God. So there is no God." Appeal to Incredulity Appeal to Pity Because a claim sounds unbelievable, it must not be true. Attempt to induce pity to sway opponents. "The eye is an incredibly complex biomechanical machine with thousands of interlocking parts. How could that exist without an intelligent designer?" "The former dictator is an old, dying man. It's wrong to make him stand trial for these alleged offenses." Appeal to Money Appeal to Ridicule Supposing that, if someone is rich or something is expensive, then it affects the truth of the claim. Presenting the opponent's argument in a way that makes it appear absurd. "If it costs more, it must be better." "Faith in God is like believing in Santa Claus and the Tooth Fairy." Appeal to Novelty Appeal to Spite Dismissing a claim by appealing to personal bias against the claimant. Supposing something is better because it is new or newer. "Awesome! The latest version of this operating system is going to make my computer faster and better." "Don't you just hate how those rich Liberal Hollywood actors go on TV to promote their agen das?" Appeal to Popular Belief Appeal to Wishful Thinking tt Suggesting a claim is true or false just because you strongly hope it is. Claiming something is true because the majority of people believe it. "Milk is good for your bones." "The President wouldn't lie. He's our leader and a good American." Appeal to Probability Р (A or B) = P(AUB) =P (A) + P (B) Assuming because something could happen, it will inevitably happen. "There are billions of galaxies with billions of stars in the universe. So there must be another planet with intelligent life on it." Appeal to Tradition Claiming something is true because it's (apparently) always been that way. "Marriage is the union between man and women. Therefore gay marriage is wrong." Faulty Deduction Manipulating Content Anecdotal Evidence Ad Hoc Rescue Discounting evidence arrived at by systematic search or testing in favor of a few firsthand stories. Trying to save a cherished belief by repeatedly revising the argument to explain away problems. "I'm going to carry on smoking. My grandfather smoked 40 a day and he lived until he was 90!" "..But apart from better sanitation, medicine, education, irrigation, public health, roads, a freshwater system and public order... what have the Romans done for us?" Composition Biased Generalizing Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of some or all of a group applies to the entire group. Generalizing from an unrepresentative sample to increase the strength of your argument. "Recentterrorist attacks have been carried out by radical Islamic groups. Therefore all terrorists are muslims." "Our website poll found that 90% of internet users oppose online piracy laws." Division Confirmation Bias Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of a group automatically apply to any individual member. Cherry-picking evidence that supports your idea while ignoring contradicting evidence. "Many Conservatives wish to ban gay marriage, discredit climate change, and deny evolution. Therefore all conservatives are homophobic, anti-enviromental creationists." "It's obvious 9-11 was a American-government led conspiracy to justify war in Iraq and Afghanistan. No plane hit the Pentagon. The Twin Towers collapse was a controlled demolition... etc" False Dilemma Design Fallacy A Presenting two opposing options as the only two options while hiding alternatives. Assuming that because something is nicely designed or beautifully visualized it's more true. "We're going to have to cut the education budget or go deeper into debt. We can't afford to go deeper into debt. So we'll have to cut the education budget." "Er.." Gambler's Fallacy Lie Assuming the history of outcomes will affect future outcomes. An outright untruth repeated knowingly as a fact. "I've flipped this coin 10 times in a row, and it's been heads. Therefore the next coin flip is more likely to come up tails." "I did not have sexual relations with that woman." Misleading Vividness Hasty Generalization Describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is a rare occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem. @=(A) Drawing a general conclusion from a tiny sample. "After a court decision to legalise gay marriage, school libraries were required to stock same-sex literature; primary school children were given homosexual fairy stories and even manuals of explicit homosexual advocacy" "I just got cut off by the woman driver in front. Women can't drive." Red Herring Jumping to Conclusions Drawing a quick conclusion without fairly considering relevant (and easily available) evidence. Introducing irrelevant material to the argument too distract and lead towards a different conclusion. "The Senator needn't account for irregularities in his expenses. After all, there are other senators who have done far worse things." "She wants birth control in her medical coverage? What a slut!" Middle Ground Slippery Slope Assuming because two opposing arguments have merit, the answer must lie somewhere between them. Assuming a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related (negative) events. "I rear ended your car butI don't think I should pay for the damage. You think I should pay for all the damage. A fair compromise would be to split the bill in half." "If we legalize marijuana, more people will start using crack and heroin. Then we'd have to legalize those too." Perfectionist Fallacy Suppressed Evidence ***** Assuming that the only option on the table is perfect success, then rejecting anything that will not work perfectly. Intentionally failing to use significant and relevant information which counts against one's own conclusion. "What's the point of this anti-drunk driving campaign? People are still going to drink and drive no matter what." "The Iraqi regime possesses and produces chemical and biological weapon s. It is seeking nuclear weapons." Relativist Fallacy Unfalsifiability ®-O Rejecting a claim because of a belief that truth is relative to a Offering a claim that cannot be proven false, because there is no way to check if it is false or not. person or group. "That's perhaps true for you. But it's not true for me." "He lied because he's possessed by demons." Spotlight A Assuming an observation from a small sample size applies to an entire group. "This large shoe manufacturer employs children in sweatshops. Therefore all shoe companies are evil child-slave owners!" A' Sweeping Generalisation Applying a general rule too broadly. "Those young men rioted because they lacked morally responsible fathers." Undistributed Middle A (- B Assuming because two things share a property, that makes them the same thing. "A theory can mean an unproven idea. Scientists use the term evolutionary theory. Therefore evolution is an unproven idea." Garbled Cause & Effect On the Attoack Affirming the Consequent Ad Hominem Assuming there's only one explanation for the observation you're making. Bypassing the argument by launching an irrelevant attack on the person and not their claim. "Marriage often results in the birth of children. So that's the reason why it exists." "Anyone that says we should build the Ground Zero Mosque is an American-hating liberal." Circular Logic Burden of Proof A conclusion is derived from a premise based on the conclusion. I don't need to prove my claim - you must prove it is false. "Stripping privacy rights only matters to those with something to hide. You must have something to hide if you oppose privacy protection." "I maintain long-term solar cycles are the cause of global warming. Show me l'm wron g." Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Circumstance Ad Hominem Claiming two events that occur together must have a cause-and-effect relationship. (Correlation = cause). Stating a claim isn't credible only because of the advocate's interests in their claim. "Teenagers in gangs listen to rap music with violent themes. Rap music inspires violence in teenagers." "A study into the health risks of mobile phone involved mobile phone companies. Therefore, the study cannot be trusted." Denying the Antecedent Genetic Fallacy There isn't only one explanation for an outcome. So it's false to assume the cause based on the effect. Attacking the cause or origin of a claim, rather than its substance. "Of course, mainstream liberal media aren't going to say Barack "If you get a degree, you'll get a good job. If you don't get a degree, you won't get a good job." Obama is a Muslim." Ignoring a Common Cause Guilt by Association Claiming one event must have caused the other when a third (unlooked for) event is probably the cause. Discrediting an idea or claim by associating it with an undesirable person or group. "We had the 60s sexual revolution, and now people are dying of AIDS." "Oh you want to relax the anti-terrorism laws just like the terrorists want us to do. Are you saying you support terrorism?" Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc Straw Man Claiming that because one event followed another, it was also caused by it. Creating a distorted or simplified caricature of your opponent's argument, and then arguing against that. "Since the election of the President more people than ever are unemployed. Therefore the President has damaged the economy." "You say Israel should stop building settlements on the West Bank in violation of treaty. So you're saying Israel doesn't have the right to be a nation?" Two Wrongs Make a Right Assuming that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out. "Sure - the conditions in this prison are cruel and dehumanising. But these inmates are criminals!" InformationisBeautiful.net written & designed by David McCandless // version 2.00 // Nov 2012 additional design: Tatjana Dubovina, Piero Zagami research: Marley Whiteside, Kathryn Ariel Kay, Peter Ayres data & research: bit.ly/rhetological sources: Wikipedia, FallacyFiles.org, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Skeptic Dictionary, ChangingMinds.org, LogicallyFallacious.com, e-ducation.net, EvolutionWiki.org Infidels.org, Philosophical Society, Sjsu.ed, TVTropes.org, Santarosa.edu, A Concise Introduction to Logic (Patrick J Hurley), Beginners Guide to the Scientific Method (Stephen S Carey) thanks to: Johnathan, Wes, Dontsave, Rummy. DVJ, Roberto Ruiz ミン 8)